Esther Neumann

I can hardly believe my eyes. Is there such a thing as mushrooms that grow through snow and ice? I came across them while walking through my garden. On a tree stump that barely protrudes from the ground, they grow in a nicely formed cluster. The ocher yellow hats and velvet brown stems stand out clearly against the snow.

My mushroom book confirms it: The velvet-foot, Flammulina velutipes, grows from autumn to spring on dead deciduous trees. A search on the Internet and browsing through textbooks reveal even more amazing things about mushrooms.

Fungi form a kingdom of their own. They are neither plant nor animal. They include single-celled organisms such as baker’s yeast and multicellular organisms such as mold and edible mushrooms. In the past, they were counted among the plants. But their metabolism is closer to that of animals, which they aren’t either, because they can’t move. So they put them into their own group without further ado.

They could belong to the animals because they build up their carbohydrate stores like animals as glycogen and not like plants as starch. However, they distinguish themselves from animals because their cell walls and vacuoles are more like plants. But the plants, in turn, possess chlorophyll. This allows them to carry out photosynthesis, which mushrooms are lacking. So they are best accommodated in their own group.

In the Realm of Fungi

About 140,000 species make up the realm of fungi. The edible mushrooms known to us make up only a tiny fraction of fungi. In the past, the genera Penicillium, from which penicillin comes from, the Aspergillus species, being the causative agent of a lung disease, and the Saccharomyces, to which baker’s yeast belongs, have been very well studied. Edible mushrooms have only had a tradition as medicinal mushrooms in Asia. But the interest in edible mushrooms and their medically active ingredients is growing around the world.

The mushroom as a fruiting body, i.e. what we call an edible mushroom, only grows when a female and a male gamete cell fuse together. Otherwise, fungi multiply asexually via spores or by dividing hyphae. There must also be enough moisture and there must be enough food for the mycelium, the actual, usually invisible mushroom body that is forming underground. With those correct conditions the long, microscopically thin cell threads, which are called hyphae, can compact, grow out of the soil or wood and create the typical fruiting body. Appearance and characteristics are crucial for a safe determination of the species. One observes the shape and color of the hat, the type of slats, pores or tubes, the stem, the environment in which the mushroom grows, the smell and much more.

Edible Mushrooms

Our edible mushrooms grow either as symbionts with the roots of certain trees (porcini mushroom, chanterelles, truffles) or as saprophytes on wood or foliage (mushrooms, oyster mushrooms, shiitake). Saprophytic mushrooms are very easy to cultivate and are therefore important edible mushrooms for the market.

Composition and Nutrients

Like our various vegetables, the fruiting body of the mushrooms consists to a large extent of water. Also, the nutritional value is about the same. The protein content can be compared to that of legumes. The fat content is negligible. The high fiber content stimulates the bowel movement and increases the volume of the stool. It is precisely this fiber that is of great medical interest. They consist of soluble and insoluble components. The soluble ones have the same effect as the pectin from fruits. They form a gel-like substance in which some insoluble components are stored. In addition to stimulating intestinal activity, they can also lower cholesterol and blood sugar levels. They have an antiviral and antibacterial effect, thus fighting pathogens such as viruses and bacteria.

Be Healthy with Mushrooms

Ergosterol, a typical fungal sterol with a similar structure to our cholesterol, offers protection against colon cancer and can lower the cholesterol level. Mushrooms contain vitamin D and vitamin B12, two vitamins that are otherwise only found in animal foods. Vitamin D is particularly found in porcini mushrooms and morels, and B12 in champignon and some other species, although quantities are too low to meet your daily requirements. Mushrooms are also considered good sources of potassium, iron, phosphorus, manganese, copper and tin. In some mushrooms (oyster mushrooms, shiitake mushrooms) phenols have also been found that can scavenge free radicals. Mushrooms are therefore highly recommended foods that can be combined well with vegetables, cereals, rice or potatoes.

Mushroom Intolerance

Mushrooms should not be eaten raw. They may contain hemolytic substances. These destroy red blood cells. However, they are eliminated by cooking. The digestibility of the mushrooms also increases by boiling them. However, some persons have congenital fungal intolerances. A rather rare type of sugar, trehalose, is found in many mushrooms. Some people do not have the appropriate enzyme to break down trehalose. They get diarrhea and stomach pain after eating mushroom dishes, even if they are not toxic.

Polysaccharides in Fungi

Fungi have cell walls made of polysaccharides, mostly made up of glucose chains. Pullulan is one representative, which is obtained on an industrial scale and used as a starch substitute. It is often added to energy-reduced foods, as it cannot be broken down by amylases, and therefore not being absorbed by the body. It can also be pressed into transparent foils, being used as a biodegradable packaging material. It is also used in oral care products, pharmaceuticals, photography, lithography and electronics.

Therapeutic Ingredients

Other polysaccharides such as Lentinan or Krestin are used in Japan and China in tumor therapy in combination with chemotherapy and radiation therapy. The mechanism of action is still being researched. We know that those substances have immune stimulating properties, which may contribute to their beneficial effect in cancer treatment.

In East Asia and the USA, mushroom extracts are advertised as “immunoceuticals”, orally available substances that benefit the immune system. However, most of the current research is done for cancer treatments, and knowledge for other immune stimulating applications is still rudimentary and safe doses of concentrated extracts are not clearly established. It is foreseeable that those products will reach popularity around the world, being sold in capsule form, often for exorbitant prices. Those who benefit the most will be probably the ones selling those lucrative products.

Although specific species will have specific properties, I can still get a significant benefit by drying my porcini mushrooms collected in the woods, chopping them up in a kitchen grinder and using the powder to thicken soups and sauces. Often this mushroom powder can substitute a high-fat roux, which is popular in French Cuisine as a thickening agent. In addition, we should not underestimate the therapeutic value of our mushrooms. Take the time and make a search in your forest for some delicious mushrooms!

“Let your food be your medicine and medicine be your food!” This phrase from Hippocrates applies particularly to nuts in all their different forms.

Nuts are concentrates of nutrients and active ingredients. High-quality fatty acids, proteins, essential vitamins as well as minerals and trace elements – all of this can be found in nuts. Although they are quite caloric, if you consume them in moderation they will not make you fat. You do not need to count the calories if you replace meat and meat products with nuts. In addition, individual types of nuts have special dietary and curative properties.

You don’t have to go without nuts because you might get too fat. It is true that nuts are very high in fat. But this fat consists mainly of monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids that are used for various body functions and are therefore not stored in the fat cells. They’re far too precious for that. They are used to isolate nerve cells and protect blood vessels. They give the brain the right support and energy. It is not for nothing that nuts are part of a trail mix widely known as student fodder in German. If we don’t snack on nuts, but use them to replace unhealthy foods at your meals, we don’t need to be afraid of their high fat content.

Student Fodder

The mineral content of nuts is very high, much higher than that of most fruits. They are especially a good source of Phosphorus, sulfur, potassium and magnesium. The expert can see right away that nuts are therefore good for the nerves, helping to substitute lecithin that is getting used in intellectual work. However, athletes, pregnant women and growing children also benefit greatly from the nuts because of the high amounts of calcium and iron. Student fodder is a mixture of nuts and dried fruits, especially raisins. The dried fruits provide the necessary carbohydrates. Protein and fat come from the nuts. A pack of trail mix can replace in a healthier way a visit to a sausage stand.

Nuts are Far Superior to Meat

Nuts contain an almost complete high-quality protein. They are only deficient of the two amino acids methionine and lysine. If we complement nuts with legumes, this deficiency is also fixed. Nuts are preferable to meat for many reasons:

• Nuts are free from metabolic waste in animals. They contain neither urea, nor uric acid, or cholesterol.
• Nuts are free from parasites such as trichinae or tapeworms.
• Nuts are not contaminated with harmful hormones from livestock breeding or the pre-slaughter stress.
• Nuts are free from harmful bacteria, which can frequently be found in meat during the warm season.
• Nuts can be eaten raw, meat usually has to be cooked for a long time

Of course, nuts have to be handled properly too. They also have an expiration date. They can go rancid. They can contain aflatoxins, especially peanuts. These are poisonous excretions from mold. That is why you always have to pay attention to the quality of goods when buying. When buying trail mix, check that the nuts don’t look rancid or are even moldy.

Nuts for Your Heart

Many studies reveal: nuts are good for the heart. They reduce the risk of coronary artery disease and stroke. They lower the cholesterol level. They provide energy for the heart, because the heart prefers to use fatty acids as an energy source. We should consume around 40g of nuts per day, alternating between the different varieties. Each variety has something special to offer.

Peanuts

Actually, they are legumes. But because of their high fat content we’ll treat them together with the nuts. They are the healthiest ingredient in the Santa Claus bag. Nibbling peanuts can help prevent tooth decay. After eating peanuts, a neutral pH value is measured in the oral cavity. This means that the microorganisms that cause tooth decay cannot find a breeding ground. Some people show though some allergic reactions on consuming high quantities of peanuts.

Hazelnuts

Hazelnuts overshadow milk and eggs in terms of nutrient density. Hazelnuts give the Christmas biscuits a special touch and strengthen the nerves. The nutrients in nuts can be best absorbed when they are processed into nut butters. Then they are optimally ground. Otherwise you would have to chew them for an extremely long time to achieve the same benefit.

Walnuts

There is a huge walnut tree in many house gardens. Let us take advantage of this wonderful gift of nature. The walnuts you have collected yourself have to be dried very well so that no mold can form. If you nibble a few walnuts every day, you protect your blood vessels and heart, because walnuts have a high content of beta-sitosterol. This hormone-like phytocholesterol also protects the prostate against tissue growth and swelling. It also helps keep the bladder functioning properly. The shape of the nut gives us a hint that it could be good for the brain. And really, it helps to keep your brain sharp as you age.

Pecans

Pecans are a good source of calcium, magnesium, and potassium, which can help control your blood pressure. Pecans contain also Omega 3 and other anti inflammatory properties, helping to control arthritis and many other diseases. They help improve the immune system, protect from cancer and prevent Alzheimer and Parkinson.

Almonds

Almonds are rich in calcium and phosphorus, also containing significant amounts of magnesium, iron and potassium. These minerals are present in the almond in a good ratio for maintaining nerve functions. Regular consumption of almonds prevents depression and strengthens nerves and muscles.

Cashew Nuts

Cashew nuts are beloved around the world for its rich flavor. In spite of having some saturated fats, like most nuts they contribute to lower cholesterol and protect the heart. Studies suggest that some cashew nuts in your diet can be helpful for your weight control, probably because they help in satiety control. They contain an antioxidant that helps protect the eye from harmful UV rays. Cashew oil is good for the skin and eating cashews or applying the oil on the scalp gives shiny hair.

Macadamia Nuts

Those nuts are one of the highest in fat content. They contain though some monounsaturated fatty acids that are not readily available from other food sources. They are the type of fatty acids that can help improve diabetes and metabolic syndrome, some of them may even help to prevent excessive weight gain. Macadamias have one of the highest flavonoid levels amongst the nuts, helping to lower cholesterol. Furthermore, they have a form of Vitamin E that protects against cancer, Alzheimer and Parkinson.

Brazil Nuts

This nut is the top candidate among all foods in terms of selenium levels. Eating just two Brazil nuts usually covers the daily selenium requirement. However, the selenium content can vary greatly depending on the place of origin. Especially in areas with selenium deficiency, it is advisable to regularly incorporate this nut into the diet. It can also help to protect against certain types of cancer.

Pistachios

Besides Walnuts and Pecans, pistachios are among the nuts with the highest antioxidant content. Some of them are important for healthy eyes. Amongst the nuts, they are one of the lowest in calories, which makes it a good option for weight control. Besides that, if you buy them with shells, you will take more time to eat them. That helps you to have a better control over the quantity you eat.

Coconuts

Coconuts are high in saturated fatty acids. In contrast to animal fats, however, these are medium-chain fatty acids that are much easier to digest. Studies have shown that these types of fatty acids can increase the endurance of athletes. They also have antibacterial properties which are beneficial in dental hygiene. They can also boost fat burning, which may help a little bit with weight control.

Each type of nut has its own specific advantages. That is why we would do well to vary our types of nuts from time to time. There are many more species than we were able to cover in this short article. Again: It pays off to crack your nuts!

Licorice, peanut puffs, corn flakes, snack bars, breakfast cereals in all shapes and colors, pasta, crispbread, soy meat, cat and dog food, everything passes through the extruder. The extruder swallows almost everything and converts cheap raw materials into expensive products. But who knows this magic machine, responsible for a number of groceries that have found their way to the shelves of our supermarkets?

Slowly the semolina pulp sinks into the funnel of the extruder. Underneath, inside a metal sleeve, a steel spiral is turning, soaking up the nutritious mass and pushing it forward. It’s getting tighter. Huge shear and pressure forces mercilessly move the pulp forward. He’s getting hotter and hotter. At the end of the pipe, the mass is passing with high pressure through a nozzle. Suddenly the mass is released, water evaporates and the pulp puffs up. Rotating knives cut the airy mass into the desired shape. Vitamins that fell by the wayside during this procedure are injected from fine nozzles. Ready are your breakfast cereals!

History of the Extruder

According to the dictionary, extrusion means: “To express a product through a nozzle, a hole or a slot in order to obtain a certain shape.” The first products to come out of an extruder were seamless lead pipes. Today, a wide variety of plastic pipes and profiles are made, but also bricks, copper wires, coated wires, soaps and much more are pressed through the extruder.

It wasn’t long before the food industry discovered the extruder for its own purposes. In 1869, pieces of meat were squeezed through the machine and stuffed into sausage skins. The extruder is indeed reminiscent of the good old meat grinder. The extrusion principle has already for a long time been used in pasta processing. Hydraulically driven piston presses squeeze moistened semolina through perforated plates, forming spaghetti, macaroni, spirals, stars and letters. Roller extruders and piston presses also transform sugar masses in the confectionery industry into all conceivable shapes and forms.

With the introduction of the screw extruder in the pasta industry during the mid-1930s, began the modern age of the extrusion process in food technology.

Structure of the Cooking Extruder

In simple terms, each extruder can be divided into the following parts. First comes the feeding zone, comparable to a funnel. This is where the raw material, be it flour, semolina, a porridge, ground peanuts, starch or a sugar mass, is fed in. A screw, sometimes two co-rotating or counter-rotating screws, transport the mass forward.

This is followed by the conversion zone. This is where things are mixed, compressed, heated, melted, transformed. Mechanical and thermal reactions take place. That is why the extruder is sometimes referred to as a bioreactor.

Now the processed product comes to the discharge zone. A nozzle is the limit. The nozzle and subsequent rotating knives determine the shape of the product to a wide extent. When the heated mass is pressed through the nozzle, the water in the product evaporates abruptly due to the drop in pressure. It results in a blown-up product, giving it a porous, light an airy structure. In principle, extruding mimics the conventional production of popcorn. Popcorn puffs at around 9.5 bar and at a temperature of about 350⁰F (175⁰ Celsius).

The Result: Product Diversity

The extruder swallows almost everything, whether waste products or valuable raw materials. Depending on the process, dry raw materials, moistened or pulpy masses are processed. Often the heat generated by the shear forces and pressure alone is enough to transform the material into the desired shape. This is referred to as cold extrusion. The friction normally results in temperatures of 90 to 140⁰F (40 to 60⁰C). However, there are also processes where additional heat must be added. The warm extruder works with 160 to 270⁰F (70 – 130⁰C) and the hot extruder with 270 to 480⁰F (130 – 250⁰C). Most cooking extruders are based on combinations of frictional heat and externally supplied heat. The pressure is in the range up to 200 bar.

The variety of products from the extruder is overwhelming. Many conventional baking or cooking processes are replaced by the extruder. Today, almost all breakfast cereals come from the extruder. A new generation of crispbread has emerged. It has an airy, light, longitudinal fiber structure.

Milling waste products such as bran and grinding meal are refined in the extruder, given new structures and afterwards are added to baked goods. Breadcrumbs and modified starch, as well as many instant foods, such as instant soups, are now produced in the extruder. Oil can be extracted. Chewing gum and even chocolates are made in the extruder. A lack of taste, due to the fast production or less valuable raw materials needs to be compensated by many tricks and trade secrets of the industry.

An interesting product is also the long egg. Boiled, sliced eggs are used a lot for garnishing. For practicality, egg yolk and egg white are separated and cleverly reassembled in the extruder. The end product is a meter-long rod, in which the yolk is always nicely placed in the middle of the egg white. There is no waste when slicing.

What Happens to the Nutrients?

The starch from raw products is almost completely broken down, so it becomes easily digestible. It comes to gelatinization and swelling, sometimes also to undesired roasting processes.

Little is known about the conversion of protein in the extruder. However, it is known that some important amino acids are destroyed. At the other hand, it has been shown that harmful enzymes in legumes, such as trypsin inhibitors in the soybean, are rendered harmless by the heat. The changes in extrusion are very versatile and can only be investigated in very complex and expensive processes. That is why there are not yet many independent results about adverse side effects of the extrusion process.

Losses are partially reduced because mass is only exposed to the high temperatures for a short time. Nevertheless, the high heat causes a substantial loss of vitamins. Cereal products provide us with the important vitamins of the B group and with folic acid. Depending on the process, there are losses of 50 – 80%. In comparison, with normal bread baking, the losses of B vitamins are between 5 and 30%. Nutrition experts recommend treating the raw materials as gently as possible. What happens in the extruder can certainly not be described as gentle. That’s why the breakfast cereals need to be subsequently enriched with vitamins.

Conclusion

Extruder products have become an integral part of our diet. Children especially demand them frequently. Be it in the form of snacks, sweets, snack bars, or breakfast cereals. But we would do well to limit it. In a nutshell, extruder products are mostly air that is sold with a lofty price tag. Expensive products are made from cheap raw materials. In case of doubt, the food industry will pay attention to the taste the consumer will crave for and less to the nutritional value that contributes to a healthy lifestyle.

If we put extruder products on the table, we should definitely vary them with conventional cereal products, in addition to fresh, untreated fruits and vegetables, nuts, and seeds. They are the ones who provide our body with important nutrients for our health.

Selenium occurs only in traces in the human body. An adult weighing 70 kg has just about 7 milligrams on average. In medicine, selenium is considered a vital, essential trace element. It plays an important role in detoxifying the body, protects the membrane of our body cells, prevents red blood cells from oxidizing and is part of some important enzymes.

Occurrence

Selenium belongs to the semi-metals. It stands at the 59th place in the frequency of the elements in the Earth’s surface. It rarely occurs in nature in its pure form. We usually find it in compounds with sulfur. Selenium minerals are also rare. Clausthalite and naumannite are known examples. Selenides are found in copper gravel and zinc blend. Selenium is used in the semiconductor industry for the production of photodiodes, photocells, radar systems, solar cells and light meters. It is used in photocopiers because of its photoelectric property. Tiny additions to glass give it a bright red color. In the red traffic lights, we experience this color in daily life.

The vital necessity of selenium for plants, humans and animals was only discovered in 1957. With selenium deficiency, young animals do not gain weight properly. In humans occur very specific deficiency diseases.

Functions in the body

Selenium fulfills its most important function as a component of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase. This important enzyme is mainly found in red blood cells. It protects them from attack by harmful oxygen radicals that are produced in normal metabolic processes, but also by smoking, alcohol, ozone, smog and ionizing radiation.

Together with vitamin E, the enzyme also protects all cell membranes. Various fats are built into the membrane, which are wafer-thin boundary layers, that must be particularly protected. If such biological membranes are destroyed, premature cell death or genetic damage to the DNA occurs.

However, the body uses this selenium-containing enzyme very sparingly. If it is consumed, it is regenerated by vitamins C and E. Vitamin B2, carotenoids and anthocyanins also play an important role in this metabolic process. So we see the importance of a diet rich in vitamin-packed unprocessed plants.

Selenium is also contained in another enzyme, iodinethyronine-5-deiodase. Here it controls the conversion of the thyroid hormone thyroxine into the biologically active form. It therefore has an influence on the basal metabolic rate, cell differentiation, cell growth and the rate of cell division.

Selenium also plays a role in the detoxification of heavy metals. It binds cadmium, lead and mercury, so that these toxic metals can no longer bind to vital proteins.

Selenium also stimulates the immune system. Research in recent years also suggests that selenium plays an important role in cancer prevention. In cancer patients, a much lower selenium levels are found in the blood.

Deficiencies

Some soils are very low in selenium. This affects Central and Northern Europe but also large parts of China. An increased incidence of the so-called Keshan’s disease has also been found there. In its chronic form, this disease manifests itself as cardiac insufficiency with simultaneous enlargement of the heart muscle. In the area where this disease has occurred more frequently, the salt has been enriched with selenium and has thus been able to be suppressed.

The first symptoms of selenium deficiency include myopathies, which are muscle weaknesses. Metabolic disorders of the liver and pancreas are often associated with a selenium deficiency. Low levels of selenium in tissues have also been found in various forms of arthritis and degenerative joint diseases.

It is interested to notice that in those areas of China where the soil is selenium deficient, mortality of COVID-19 was much higher than in other parts o the country. That stresses again the importance of Selenium for the immune system.

Chemotherapy of cancer as well as oxygen therapies lead to increased formation of free radicals, which can be intercepted by selenium and other antioxidants.

Selenium-rich Foods

Animal foods generally contain higher amounts of selenium than plant foods. But selenium from the plant is more bioavailable, so it is more easily absorbed by the body. High amounts of vitamin C, being still in the physiological range, improve the absorption from the gastrointestinal tract.

Nuts and seeds have high amounts of selenium. The Brazil nut has by far the highest selenium content, even multiple times more than animal products. Chia and sunflower seeds have moderate amounts of selenium, Soybeans and white beans are also good sources. Substantial amounts are also found in whole grain, millet and rice, but this depends on the selenium content of the soil. Finland is a very selenium-poor area. The soils there are enriched with selenium. Other countries in Central and Northern Europe are also discussing enrichment.

Those who live in areas with selenium-poor soils should not eat exclusively products from their own garden or the farmers from the surrounding area. Supplementing your diet with some nuts and seeds grown in tropical areas can help to balance this deficiency. Brazil nuts tend to be especially high in selenium, but can vary greatly depending on soil conditions. Eating just two Brazil nuts normally gives you more than your daily need. Since Brazil Nuts are so high in selenium, you should be cautious to not overuse them, though eating up to 4 nuts daily on a regular basis you should be still in the safe zone.

Overdosage and Poisoning

Before it was discovered that selenium is vital for humans, the trace element was considered one of the most toxic elements. However, acute selenium poisoning has occurred very rarely. In the production of glass and paints and in electronics, where selenium is used, however, protection of employees is necessary.

An overdosage is highly unlikely via food alone. However, supplementation with selenium is increasingly popular. Corresponding preparations are already on the shelves of supermarkets and drugstores. Whether a general supplementation can be recommended is controversial because the knowledge about the trace element is still insufficient. Therefore, an independent intake of selenium-containing supplements should be discouraged. They belong in the hands of an experienced doctor. It is certain that the additional intake of selenium is recommended for cancer, special forms of arthritis and certain cardiovascular diseases. However, the amounts to be taken vary depending on the respective course of treatment. This again shows that only the attending physician should decide on selenium supplementation.

Varied Diet

To avoid a selenium deficiency, a balanced diet is key. Problems are only likely to arise in areas with selenium-poor soils and limited food choices at the same time. With the exception of the Brazil nut, plant products have lower selenium levels, but this is made up by better absorption and better recycling of selenium containing enzymes. Once again it has been shown that a varied diet with a high proportion of plant-based food is the right way to go.